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Every book also has their characteristic to influence the reader. These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms, and may act as signaling molecules, [9] [10] but there is no consensus if, in this case, they can be called hormones. Compared with vertebrates, insects and crustaceans possess a number of structurally unusual hormones such as the juvenile hormone, a sesquiterpenoid.
Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellularreceptors. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.
Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the G protein-coupled receptor GPCR class of seven alpha helixtransmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as signal transduction, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers e.
Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism. For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane.
They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, regulating the expression of certain genes, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes.
Some are associated with the plasma membrane. A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis. The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostaticnegative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones.
Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an 'effect' of the hormone. One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus. Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be 'local' because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation.
They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distant sites within the body. Many hormones and their structural and functional analogs are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestogens as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT , [19] thyroxine as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism and steroids for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders. Insulin is used by many diabetics.
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